Table 9 Principle, advantages, and disadvantages of PLAN sensors
Sensor | Principle | Advantage | Disadvantage |
|---|---|---|---|
HD map | Use detailed road and infrastructure data for precise localization and environment perception | High accuracy High resolution Rich environment and infrastructure layers | High requirement on update and accuracy High accuracy requirement Costly in generation and maintenance |
LiDAR | Use infrared light waves to measure distances and generate point clouds | High ranging accuracy Dense point cloud Being used in consumer devices | High cost Large size The problem in the life span Dependency on the significance of features |
Camera | Collect and analyze images for localization and perception purposes | Low cost Dense point clouds with colors Passive sensing | Sensitivity to illumination and weather Dependency on the significance of features |
RADAR | Use radio waves for ranging and object detection | Low cost Accurate ranging Small size, being used in cars | Low measurement density Cannot detect markers |
WiFi/BLE | Use local communication signals for localization | Existing infrastructure Supported by consumer devices | Low accuracy by RSS High power consumption in WiFi Problems inherent to wireless signals (e.g., multipath, NLoS, and variation) |
5G | Use next-generation cellular signal for localization | Existing infrastructure Supported by consumer devices New features, such as miniaturized base station and mmWave MIMO | Low accuracy by RSS Problems inherent to wireless signals Current base station density is low |
LPWAN | Use IoT signals for localization | Supported by IoT devices Low cost Low power consumption Long range | Low accuracy by RSS Problems inherent to wireless signals |
INS | Measure angular rates and linear specific forces to derive motion states | Self-contained Robust in the short term Off-the-shelf sensors in consumer devices Full motion states | Relative navigation solution High cost for high-end sensors Significant errors for low-cost sensors |
GNSS | Localize device using satellite trilateration | Global absolute position fixing High precision when converged (with RTK/PPP) Supported by consumer devices | Signal degradation in urban and indoor regions Prone to jam and spoof Relatively weak in attitude determination |
UWB/ultrasonic | Precise localization through precise ranging | High-precision ranging Cost is reducing, being used in consumer devices | Require extra infrastructure Problems inherent to wireless signals |